What were the major causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India? Were these new religions a Kshatriya response to the Brahmanical hegemony over religion and philosophy? Read on to find out more in detail.
Causes for Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
In ancient times, India was not much different from the rest of the world in terms of its social composition.
The Indian society used to consist of different tribes and social groups with varying degrees of alliances and enmities amongst them.
However, during the Vedic times, Brahmins in connivance with the elite ruling classes devised the Varna or caste system to cement their superior status and control over the Indian society.
Under this, all Indian tribes and castes were divided into four different classes or compartments called “Varnas”. They were named as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
While Brahmins being the priestly class occupied the highest position in this social hierarchy, the Shudras found themselves at the lowest rung of the society.
Kshatriyas were the ruling classes and Vaishyas were the merchant and trading groups.
The status of farmers and peasants was doubtful as sometimes they were labeled as Vaishyas and sometimes Shudras.
Nevertheless, according to Brahmanical scriptures, the duty of Shudras was to diligently serve the three higher varnas or classes namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas.
Interestingly, in terms of their population, the Shudras made up the majority of Indians and they still do as per recent population estimates.
Marginalisation of Working Classes
Prominent Brahmanical scriptures like Manusmriti and Dharmashastras categorized peasants and working classes of India as Shudra. These classes were the most hardworking class in Indian society.
With their blood, sweat and labour, these Shudras worked in fields and farms, reared animals, and produced grains that fed entire India kings and commoners alike.
Yet, Brahmanical scriptures not only referred to these Shudras as an impure and polluted class but also treated them as untouchables in different walks of life.
In common Brahmanical parlance, Shudras were portrayed and mocked as “cruel, greedy, and thieving in their habits”.
While both Brahmins and Kshatriyas prospered at the taxes of Vaishyas and the free labor of Shudras, Brahmins were undoubtedly the prime beneficiaries of the unjust Varna system.
They enjoyed an absolute monopoly over the interpretation of knowledge, law, religion, and philosophy.
Besides this, they also claimed several exclusive privileges like receiving gifts from all classes on important religious occasions and complete exemption from government taxation and punishment.
Naturally, this Brahmanical dominance over law, religion, and society led to a series of social and political tensions, especially in the post-Vedic times.
Over a period of time, this social tension and churning in the Indian society led to the emergence of new religions like Jainism and Buddhism.
Kshatriya Reaction to Brahmanical Supremacy
While not much is known about the reactions of the vaishyas and the shudras to the Brahmanical supremacy, the Kshatriyas who happened to be the powerful ruling classes deeply resented the final say of Brahmins on matters of knowledge and rituals.
Naturally, not all ruling classes and their progenies can be expected to be interested only in matters of governance, war, and conquest. Some of them have sorts of philosophical and business leanings as well.
The same happened in ancient India. Many Kshatriyas were interested in free-thinking, philosophical discourses, and even trade and business enterprises. But they found themselves severely restricted because of the rigid varna system.
Thus, they gradually started undermining the Brahmanical control over the thinking and intellectual pursuits in the society. Some even started protesting against the importance attached to birth in the varna system.
As Kshatriyas were powerful on account of being the ruling classes, they were at the forefront in founding and patronizing new religions against Brahmanism.
One must note that both Gautam Buddha and Mahavira, the founders of two major anti-Brahmanical religions namely Jainism and Buddhism came from noble Kshatriya clans and they both disputed the authority of the Brahmins.
Agrarian and Economic Causes
There were some agrarian and economic causes as well behind the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.
It may be noted that before the 6th century BC, large parts of Northern India especially eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were densely forested and prone to erosion and frequent flooding.
However, the discovery of iron led to the large-scale clearance of forests with the help of iron axes.
Gradually, large-scale agrarian habitations and settlements began to develop in these areas towards the end of the sixth century BC.
The agricultural economy based on the iron plowshare required the use of bullocks, and could not flourish without animal husbandry.
However, the Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in Vedic sacrifices hampered the progress of the new agriculture.
The cattle wealth was gradually decimated because the cows and bullocks were being killed in the course of the numerous Vedic sacrifices.
The non-Vedic tribal people living on the southern and eastern fringes of Magadha also killed cattle for food. However, if the new agrarian economy was to stabilize, this killing had to be halted.
This was one of the major causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism which preached non-violence.
Lower castes and peasantry began to favor them because compared to Brahmanism, these new religions sought to safeguard their economic interests besides giving them a sense of dignity.
Mercantile Causes behind the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
In the fifth century BC, the rise of a large number of cities and the issuance of coins by rulers in northeastern India facilitated trade and commerce.
As a result, a new category of Vaishya class arose in the form of rich traders and artisans.
However, in the varna-based Brahmanical society, the vaishyas ranked third in the caste hierarchy and were generally looked down upon by Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.
Thus, the ultra-rich Vaishyas sought a religious dogma that would improve their social position and prestige. Consequently, we find them extending generous monetary support to both Mahavira and Gautam Buddha.
The ultra-rich capitalist merchants, called “sethis”, made handsome gifts to Gautama Buddha and his disciples. According to RS Sharma, there were several reasons behind this.
Firstly, Jainism and Buddhism at the initial stage did not attach any importance to the existing varna system.
Secondly, they preached the gospel of non-violence, which would put an end to wars between different kingdoms and consequently promote trade and commerce.
Thirdly, the Brahmanical law- books, called the Dharmasutras, decried lending money at interest, and condemned those who lived on interest.
“Therefore, the vaishyas, who lent money because of the growing trade and commerce, were held in low esteem and looked for better social status,” writes Sharma.
It should be noted that Jains are still one of the most prominent and rich trading communities of India.
Public Reaction against Rise of Propertied Classes
Jainism and Buddhism were also a result of strong public reactions against various forms of private property.
Before the rise of new agrarian and the mercantile classes in the fertile Gangetic plains, people at large were habituated to a primitive lifestyle and barter system.
However, with the rise of new materialistic cultures due to the development of agrarian and mercantile systems, some of them saw threats to their simple and primitive lifestyle.
They felt unease with the growing urbanization and new commercial system based on the use and accumulation of coins made of silver, copper, and possibly gold.
Some people also disliked the mad rush and struggles for luxuries of life in form of new dwellings, clothes, and transport systems.
The competition for fertile plains, metal ores, and other limited resources often lead to war and violence, especially among the rulers.
Common people blamed the new materialistic lifestyle for these troubles and despised violence. Clearly, there were elements of superstitions and bigotry.
Nevertheless, the new forms of properties and valuables created a new set of social inequalities.
Obviously, not all people benefited from the rise of materialistic lifestyles. To many, it also caused indebtedness, misery, and suffering.
Common people, therefore, yearned to return to a primitive lifestyle, to the ascetic ideal which dispensed with the new forms of property and the new style of life.
Jainism and Buddhism appealed to such a set of people as they both propounded simple, puritan, ascetic living.
Why did Jainism and Buddhism appeal to Common People?
According to RS Sharma, Buddhist and Jain monks were asked to forego the luxuries of life and were forbidden to touch gold and silver.
They were allowed to accept only as much from their patrons as was sufficient to keep body and soul together.
Both Jainism and Buddhism, therefore, appealed to those who were against the material advantages stemming from the new lifestyle of the Gangetic basin.
“In other words, we find the same kind of reaction against changes in material life in the mid-Gangetic plain in the sixth and fifth centuries BC as occurred against the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution of modern times,” writes Sharma.
As with the post-Industrial world, many people yearned for a return to a pre-machine age lifestyle, so in ancient times, people also yearned for a return to the pre-Iron Age primitive lifestyle.
Conclusion
In conclusion, agrarian and mercantile factors coupled with social tensions and reactions against Brahmanical supremacy in society were some of the major causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India.
While Kshatriyas resented the Brahmanical monopoly over religion, knowledge, and spirituality, peasants and mercantile classes found better economic safeguards in Jainism and Buddhism.
Another reason for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the desire of common people, especially those who did not profit from the new agrarian and mercantile system, to return back the pre-Iron age primitive lifestyle.
As both Buddhism and Jainism preached and advocated a simple, ascetic, and monastic lifestyle, they appealed to such a set of people who were status-quoist and against materialistic growth in the northern plains that was aided by the discovery of iron and clearance of forests for agricultural use.
Source: India’s Ancient Past- RS Sharma