Why is the Gupta Empire (4th century CE to late 6th century CE) called the golden age of Hinduism and ancient India? Is it because of some major scientific and mercantile achievements or due to the resurgence of Hindu-Brahmanism and the caste system?
What were the socio-political structure and characteristics of the caste system during the Gupta Period? Was it great and benevolent as some claim it to be or was it as rigid and oppressive as it is today?
Read this to learn more about the socio-political and economic structure of the Gupta Empire from a subaltern perspective.
Founder of Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire arose over the ruins of the Kushan Empire. While historians, in general, differ over the racial and ethnic origins of the Gupta dynasty, according to RS Sharma, they might have been of vaishya origin.
He also suggests that the Guptas were possibly feudatories of the Kushans in north India before their rise to imperial power.
Nevertheless, historians refer to Shri Gupta (c.240-280 AD) as the founder and first king of the Gupta dynasty and he ruled from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE.
After his death, his son Ghatotkacha (c.280-319 AD) succeeded him as the next ruler of the nascent Gupta Empire.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription describes Shri Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha as Maharaja or great kings and Chandragupta I as Maharajadhiraja or the king of great kings.
Capital of Gupta Empire
The capital of the Gupta Empire was the ancient city of Pataliputra (today Patna). The city had previously served as the capital and command center of the mighty Magadha, Nanda, and Maurya Empires.
Gupta Empire Map
The Gupta empire was not as large as the Mauryan empire but it kept north India politically united for over a century from AD 335 to 455.
Important Rulers of the Gupta Empire
Chandragupta I
He acceded to the Gupta throne in 320 AD and is considered to be the first important king of the Gupta dynasty.
He married a Kshatriya princess of the Lichchhavi clan from Nepal. Since Guptas were probably vaishyas, this marriage into a Kshatriya family lent them prestige and strengthened his position.
Later he took the title of Maharajadhiraja and started the Gupta era in AD 319–20, which marked the date of his accession. Later many inscriptions of the Gupta era came to be dated in this era.
Samudragupta
He ruled from c.335 to 380 AD and enormously extended the frontiers of the Gupta Empire. For this reason and also because of his valor and military acumen he is famously called the Napoleon of India.
As opposed to Ashoka’s policy of peace and non-aggression, Samudragupta delighted in violence and conquest.
According to a Chinese source, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary to Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya.
Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta wrote a glowing account of his patron’s military exploits on the same pillar that carries the inscriptions of the peace-loving Ashoka at Allahabad.
Chandragupta II
During his reign, the Gupta Empire reached its zenith. Like his father, he also extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquest.
For instance, he married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince of the brahmana caste.
However, after the prince died, Prabhavati became the virtual ruler and according to some sources, she promoted the interests of her father Chandragupta.
Chandragupta II conquered Mathura from the Kushans and western Malwa and Gujarat from the Shaka Kshatrapas. Later, he made Ujjain his second capital.
Further, to commemorate his victory over the Shakas, he adopted the title of Vikramaditya. His court at Ujjain was adorned by numerous Sanskrit scholars including Kalidasa and Amarasimha.
It was during Chandragupta’s reign that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien (AD 399–414) visited India and wrote an elaborate account of his itineraries.
The iron pillar inscription in Delhi’s Qutb Minar complex pays a glowing tribute to his military wonders and exploits.
Kumargupta I
He was the son of Chandragupta Vikramaditya and grandson of the Samudragupta. He ruled for over 40 years (from c.415 to 455 AD).
He adopted the title of Shakraditya and Mahendraditya. His reign also witnessed a revolt by the Puushyamitra tribe and the Huna invasions. He was, however, able to defend himself from Hunas.
Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) discovered the remains of an ancient temple dating back to his period in the 5th Century AD in Bilsarh village of Uttar Pradesh’s Etah district.
This is in addition to the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh and Bhitargaon Temple near Kanpur Dehat.
Administration of Gupta Empire
Gupta Empire had a well-developed and sophisticated administrative setup that facilitated the governance of a large imperial territory.
Initially, officers were appointed by the king and possibly paid in cash. However, later, most administrative posts became hereditary and were paid through land grants. This naturally weakened royal control.
| Kumaramatyas – Prince governors |
| Bhukti – Provinces |
| Uparika – Head of Bhukti |
| Vishayas – Districts |
| Vishayapati – Head of districts |
| Vithis – Sub-districts |
| Dinara – Gold coins |
Rural Administration
According to RS Sharma, the village headman gained importance in Gupta times. He managed village affairs with the assistance of village elders. He held some authority as no land transactions could be effected without their consent.
Urban Administration
In urban areas, organized professional bodies of traders and merchants had considerable say in administrative affairs.
The seals that have been discovered by Vaishali show that artisans and a corporate body consisting of merchants and heads of the trading guilds conducted the affairs of the town.
For instance, the administrative board of the Kotivarsha district in Bengal included the chief merchant, the chief trader, and the chief artisan.
Gupta Empire and Priestly Class
The Gupta Empire is a classic case of mutual connivance between the ruling and priestly classes.
There have been multiple instances in India, where if the ruler did not happen to be of the so called Kshatriya breed (ruling caste), he would cajole and bribe Brahmins in order to be branded and legitimised as such.
Because in the caste-ridden society of ancient India, it were the Brahmins who became the final arbiters of the caste status of an individual or community.
That being said, connivance between rulers and priests need not always be harmful if they both come from the same stock, class, and race as the common citizenry.
However, the problem is compounded multiple times in the case of Hindu-brahmin-dominated India where rulers, priests, and common folks come from rigidly distinct & compartmentalized castes with strict and immobile hierarchies amongst them.
Gupta kings who came from the mercantile Vaishya category bestowed extravagant gifts and grants to Brahmins in order to be recognised as Kshatriyas.
And the greedy Brahmins lost no time in reciprocating the favors. They not only ordained the Gupta rulers as Kshatriyas but also decorated them with flamboyant tiles like Vikramaditya and Maharajadhiraj on the lines of Sassanid rulers of ancient Persia (Sharma).
Gupta Kings called themselves God
As if this was not enough, the Brahmins not only compared the Gupta monarchs with Hindu deities but also elevated them to the status of God with the title of ‘Parameshwara’ i.e. the Supreme God.
Later, some other Hindu-Brahminicized dynasties like Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, etc also adopted the same practice.
For the unversed, the idea of bestowing divinity on rulers took roots in ancient Egypt where the Pharaohs would style themselves as the head of state as well as the God of Egypt.
Brahmins also forced and manipulated the gullible Indians “to look upon the Gupta kings as Vishnu – the protector, and the preserver” (Sharma).
Since Hindu-nationalists detest Muslim rulers for breaking the status-quo of the Hindu-Brahmin Golden rule of India, it would be interesting to compare their rule with the demands of an Islamic polity.
Firstly, Islam invalidates monarchy and hereditary succession in matters of governance and polity. Instead, it envisages a rule by consultation and if possible by consensus (Al Quran 42:38-40).
Therefore Monarchies whether Muslim or Non-Muslim (including the Mughal Empire) are illegal according to Islamic scriptures.
Secondly, Islam condemns the practice of rulers or leaders bestowing flamboyant titles on themselves.
According to a Hadith narrated Abu Huraira RA, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said that the most awful name in Allah’s sight on the day of judgment will be that of a man calling himself ‘Malik-al-Amlak’ i.e. king of kings. (Sahih al-Bukhari 6205)
Thus royal titles like ‘Maharajadhiraja‘, Badshah or ‘Shahanshah‘ (all meaning King of Kings) are not valid in Islam.
When it came to charities, the Gupta Kings dedicated most of their charities to Brahmins in lavish ceremonies and not to the poor and needy.
Islam on the other hand, in such matters, gives the foremost preference to the poor and needy and not to priests and Brahmins.
“Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect zakah and for bringing hearts together for Islam and for freeing captives or slaves and for those in debt and for the cause of Allah and for the stranded traveler- an obligation imposed by Allah. And he is All-Knowing and All-Wise.” Al Quran 9:60
Excessive Land Grants to Brahmins
Gupta rulers made excessive land grants to Brahmins and also exempted them from all sorts of taxes.
They probably surpassed all other previous rulers in this practice. This resulted in the rise of a class of Brahmanical landlords which in turn aggravated the oppression of the local peasantry who were relegated to a much lower Shudra status.
Whereas the Brahmins and their posterities were absolved from paying taxes, poor peasants, and others overburdened with disproportionate taxes.
In addition, the burden to feed the armed forces also fell upon the peasantry for which it was not remunerated at all.
The peasants and farmers had to not only supply food grains, animals, furniture, etc to upper-caste royal officers but they were also subjected to forced labor called Vishti for the royal army and other officials, writes RS Sharma in India’s ancient past.
Since Gupta rulers came from the Vaishya community, it is no surprise that they lowered the taxes on the caste-based mercantile community.
It must be borne in mind, that Islamic law condemns such feudal practices. The Prophet (PBUH) warned Muslims from engaging in feudal practices.
“It has been narrated by Ibn Masood (r) that Prophet (s) said- “Don’t indulge in feudal practices on earth and if you do so, you shall be engrossed in this world only.” Mishkat-ul Masabeeh 5178
The Rule of Dharmashastras
Like Satavahanas, Guptas too strived to rule according to Brahmanical Dharmashastras.
Both civil and penal laws in the Gupta Empire were based on the regressive Brahmanical shastras under which for a similar offense, the higher castes were given lesser punishments while the Shudras and lower castes were subjected to horrendous and barbaric punishments.
The same was true in the case of taxation. While the upper classes were exempt from taxation, all its burden fell on the peasantry which was subject to a dozen of heavy taxes.
Note, that Islam condemns such regressive legal systems. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) warned his people to be mindful of those who inflicted legal punishments on the poor and forgive the rich.
Such people, the Prophet says are destroyed under the burden of their own injustices.
Narrated `Aisha: Usama approached the Prophet (ﷺ) on behalf of a woman (who had committed theft). The Prophet (ﷺ) said, “The people before you were destroyed because they used to inflict the legal punishments on the poor and forgive the rich. By Him in Whose Hand my soul is! If Fatima (the daughter of the Prophet (ﷺ) ) did that (i.e. stole), I would cut off her hand.” Sahih al-Bukhari 6787
Guptas too were devoured by their grave injustices and caste-based segregations.
Dharmashastras as discussed in earlier posts are infamous Brahminical treatises that uphold racial segregation and caste-based discrimination.
They lay down the duties of each varna and enjoins upon Kshatriyas (ruling class) to protect the Dharma i.e. to ensure even by the force that there is no intermixing between people of different social orders.
Gupta kings were at the forefront in taking advice from Brahmans on matters of statecraft and dispute resolution. In addition to Brahmans, the merchant class also enjoyed certain privileges and concessions.
Revival of the Caste System
The Gupta period also aided the revival of Hindu-Brahmanism and facilitated the decline of Buddhism.
The relationship of connivance, convenience, and quid-pro-quo between the Gupta rulers and Brahmins led to the rapid resurgence of the Brahminical order in India which had earlier been overshadowed for a short time due to Buddhism and Jainism.
Gupta kings ceased the patronage granted to Buddhism by earlier rulers and instead promoted various shades of Hindu-Brahmanism (Sharma).
On account of the large land grants made to them, the Brahmans accumulated huge wealth and prosperity which by and large remained unproductive.
Emergence of Rajputs
The Gupta Empire also saw the maturing of the caste system. A large number of foreigners like Shakas, Kushans, and Huns were absorbed into different castes and tribes.
According to acclaimed historian RS Sharma, since these were primarily conquerors and ruling classes, a large number of them were ascribed to the Kshatriya status. Huns, for instance, came to be recognized as one of the 36 clans of Rajputs.
Most of the Puranas and epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata were also written during this age to glorify and legitimize the Kshatriya rule. Idolatry also flourished during this time.
Status of Shudras and Women
The status of Shudras and women deteriorated in the Gupta Empire.
As a result of the Brahmanical dominance in socio-religious affairs, Shudras and women were relegated to an inferior status in accordance with the mandate of Dharmashastras and Manusmriti.
They all were subjected to various kinds of disabilities and discrimination.
Women began to be treated as the property of the male so much so that they were supposed to immolate themselves after the death of their husbands.
Chinese traveler Fahein in his India treatise has recorded the horrific ordeal that untouchables had to go through during the Gupta rule.
He narrates that they lived on the extreme periphery of the settlements and whenever they entered the village or town, they had to carry a piece of wood around their waist to announce their arrival so the high castes may stay away from them.
They were subjected to gruesome punishments for violating this rule.
Trade and Commerce in Gupta Empire
According to RS Sharma, the Gupta period witnessed a decline in long-distance trade.
Moreover, exorbitant tax-free land grants bestowed on the Brahmins led to the development of an oppressive Brahmanical feudal system that pushed the peasantry into abject poverty and humiliation.
Further, Brahmins had little interest in improving agriculture as long as they were paid handsomely by the royal court.
Also, these land grants to Brahmins and temples did not benefit the state as these grants were tax-free.
In the long term, therefore, the state faced difficulty in sustaining large armies and nuanced administrative machinery.
All this led to the rapid decline of the Gupta Empire aided by the Huna invasions from the northwest.
Gupta Empire Art and Culture
Gupta rulers were great patrons of Hindu-Brahmin art, culture, and architecture.
They were the first to build structural Hindu-Brahmin temples in north India using bricks, sandstone, granite, etc as opposed to the ancient rock-cut temples.
The Gupta style of temple architecture was influenced by the Kushana, Mathura, and Gandhara schools of art and architecture.
From here, they borrowed the common features of T-shaped doorways, decorated door jambs, sculpted panels with high-relief figures, and laurel-wreath and acanthus motifs.
Further, the Guptas highly appreciated the square formations and designed temple bases in square forms.
They were meant to be appreciated from all sides with each side carrying distinctive architectural features and decorations.
Some famous temples dating back to the Gupta era include Dashavatara Temple near Jhansi Uttar Pradesh, Bitargaon temple near Kanpur, and Mahabodhi Temple of Bodhgaya, etc.
The caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora in Maharashtra and Udayagiri near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh also date back to the Gupta period.
Further, the Bitargaon temple from the Gupta period provides one of the earliest examples of pointed arches anywhere in the world.
Another significant feature of Gupta-era temples is that they were dedicated to a large number of Hindu pantheons rather than a single deity.
Some of the famous poets and Sanskrit scholars who lived in the Gupta court included Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Harisena, etc.
Some other writers, philosophers, and scientists of that period include Vatsyayana, Varahamihira, Aryabhata, etc.
Aryabhata is believed to be the first to consider zero as a separate number. He also studied solar and lunar eclipses and postulated that the Earth rotates about its own axis.
Causes for Decline of Gupta Empire
The Gupta empire underwent a gradual decline second half of the fifth century AD. While several factors contributed to its downfall, the Huna invasions remain a prominent cause.
Huna Invasions
Although the Gupta king Skandagupta took effective measures to stem the march of the Hunas into India, his successors proved weak and failed to do so.
Hunas were excellent horsemen and archers. They used stirrups made of metal and could move quickly. All this enabled them to achieve considerable success not only in Iran and Central Asia but also in India.
By AD 485, the Hunas had occupied Punjab, Rajasthan, eastern Malwa, and a substantial portion of central India. All this drastically reduced the extent of the Gupta Empire at the beginning of the sixth century.
Yashodharman of Malwa
Although Yashodharman of Malwa was able to overthrow Hunas, he also challenged the authority of the Guptas. And in AD 532, he set it up a pillar of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of northern India.
Though his rule was short-lived, it dealt a severe blow to the already declining Gupta empire.
Rise of the Feudatories
The Gupta empire was further undermined by the rise of the feudatories. When the central authority of the empire weakened, many governors and feudatories declared independence and stopped minting Gupta coins.
The rise of powerful governors and feudatories deprived the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce and consequently crippled them economically.
Land Grants to Brahmins
Gupta rulers’ practice of giving excessive land grants to Brahmins, temples, and other religious purposes reduced the revenues. With declining sources of revenue, they may have found it difficult to maintain a large professional army.
Conclusion
So this was a rough sketch of the socio-economic and political affairs of the Gupta Empire.
From Hindu-national perspective, Gupta empire was a golden age as it accelerated the rapid revival and resurgence of the magnificent Hindu-Brahminical culture and polity over northern India after a brief interregnum due to the surge of Buddhism.
However, from class and caste perspectives, Gupta Empire was a coercive, oppressive, and exploitative system.
While it made excessive tax-free land grants to Brahmins and their posterities, it imposed a heavy tax burden on other Indians and subjected farmers to forced labor in temples and palaces without any remuneration.
To sum up, the Gupta Empire could be an age of glory for a few Brahmins and upper castes of India, but for the rest of the Indians and Bahujans, it was an age of darkness, inequity, and indignity which strengthened the hold of humiliating caste system and Brahmanism on India.
The Gupta Empire was also about the ostentatious display of royal wealth and splendor in the form of massive stone structures, pompous rituals, and ratha yatras while the poor Indians had little to eat.
فَتَعٰلَى اللّٰهُ الۡمَلِكُ الۡحَـقُّ
Fata’Aalallahul Malikul Haqqu
So exalted be Allah (God), the (only) true King…”
Al-Quran 20:114
Works Cited
- Sharma, R. S. India’s Ancient Past. Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Chandra, Satish. History of Medieval India: 800-1700. Orient BlackSwan, 2018.
- Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson, 2019.
- Abdullah, Yusuf Ali. Holy Quran. Goodword Books, 2019.
- Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail, and Muhammad Muhsin. Khan. Sahih Al-Bukhari: the Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari: Arabic-English. Darussalam Pub. & Distr., 1997.
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