The issue of the infallibility of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is a contentious issue amongst Muslims.
While some believe that Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was born like any other human being and it was only later at the age of 40 he chosen by God as his Prophet and Messenger, others firmly believe that the Prophet (PBUH) was born a Prophet, was pure, infallible, and sinless since birth and had the knowledge of the unseen.
This article succinctly deals with the issue of infallibility of Prophet Muhammad PBUH from Shia and Sunni perspectives in light of Holy Quran and recent developments.
Shia Belief on Infallibility of Prophet Muhammad PBUH
Most Shia groups except Zaidis believe in the idea of Ismah of Prophets and Imams.
Ismah refers to the idea of incorruptible innocence, immunity from sin, or moral infallibility.
In Shia theology, ismah is the special characteristic of prophets, imams, and angels.
According to Twelver Shia, the “Fourteen Infallibles” beings divinely bestowed free from error and sin include Prophet Muhammad PBUH, his daughter Fatimah RA, and the Twelve Imams (AS).
Shia deduce and infer their concept of infallibility of Prophets and Imams from a cumulative reading of certain verses from Holy Quran like the “Verse of Purification” (33:33), 4:59, and 68:8-10, etc which talk about the purity of Prophet Muhammad PBUH and his family and ask Muslims to obey Prophet and not sinners or disbelievers.
“We only sent messengers to be obeyed by Allah’s Will. If only those ˹hypocrites˺ came to you ˹O Prophet˺ – after wronging themselves – seeking Allah’s forgiveness and the Messenger prayed for their forgiveness, they would have certainly found Allah ever Accepting of Repentance, Most Merciful.” (Holy Quran 4:64)
O believers! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. Should you disagree on anything, then refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if you ˹truly˺ believe in Allah and the Last Day. This is the best and fairest resolution. (Holy Quran 4:59)
“Settle in your homes, and do not display yourselves as women did in the days of ˹pre-Islamic˺ ignorance. Establish prayer, pay alms-tax, and obey Allah and His Messenger. Allah only intends to keep ˹the causes of˺ evil away from you and purify you completely, O members of the ˹Prophet’s˺ family!” (Holy Quran 33:33)
Shia argue that since the above verses gives an absolute order to follow Prophets and Messengers of Allah, so they must be infallible.
Similarly, other verses prohibit Muslims from obeying sinners and disbelievers, and hence Prophet must be free from all kinds of sins, mistakes and disbeliefs. Also, if Prophet be not infallible, then these are contradictory orders, argue Shia scholars.
According to a recent and highly influential Shi‘ite interpretation of Ismah by Ruhollah Khomeini holds that not just Prophets and Imams but truly faithful and pious Muslims could also possess Ismah, because infallibility is borne by perfect faith.
However, according to critiques, this theory was meant to justify his rule and political ideology in Iran.
Sunni Belief on Infallibility of Prophet Muhammad PBUH
Sunni Muslims generally interpret the concept of Ismah in a narrow sense. They believe that while Prophets are infallible in terms of their core faith and belief, they can commit mistakes and errors in worldly matters and transactions.
Further, they interpret Ismah to mean that prophets are also immune from telling lies intentionally or unintentionally, of being Kafir i.e. infidel before or after their assignment, and of being unable to commit other sins intentionally.
In other aspects, there is divergence of opinions but most Sunnis believe that it is possible for the Prophets to unintentionally commit sin, while the minority believe that it is not.
Some Sunni groups reject the doctrine of ismah by citing verses like 48:1-2 and 62:2-3, etc from Holy Quran.
“Indeed, We have granted you a clear triumph O Prophet. So that Allah may forgive you for your past and future shortcomings, perfect His favour upon you, guide you along the Straight Path.” (Holy Quran 48:1-2)
“He is the One Who raised for the illiterate people a messenger from among themselves – reciting to them His revelations, purifying them, and teaching them the Book and wisdom, for indeed they had previously been clearly astray along with others of them who have not yet joined them ˹in faith˺. For He is the Almighty, All-Wise. This is the favour of Allah. He grants it to whoever He wills. And Allah is the Lord of infinite bounty.” (Holy Quran 62:2-4)
Nevertheless, even if Prophets were normal human beings, literates or illiterates in worldly senses, possessed the knowledge of the unseen or not, they were still special and must be seen as such because they were bestowed with Prophethood by Allah Almighty.
Did Prophets had the knowledge of unseen?
There is again a fundamental divergence of opinion amongst Muslims on the issue whether Prophets had the knowledge of the unseen i.e. whether or not they possessed knowledge about each and everything.
While most Shias believe that not only Prophet but also Imams had the knowledge of the unseen, most Sunnis believe that as such Prophet did not had the knowledge of the unseen but only knew that which was told to him God almighty through divine inspirations.
Nonetheless, in this regard following verses and hadiths are noteworthy.
Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “I do not say to you that I possess Allah’s treasuries or know the unseen, nor do I claim to be an angel. I only follow what is revealed to me.” Say, “Are those blind ˹to the truth˺ equal to those who can see? Will you not then reflect?” 6:50
To Allah ˹alone˺ belongs the knowledge of what is hidden in the heavens and the earth. And to Him all matters are returned. So worship Him and put your trust in Him. And your Lord is never unaware of what you do. 11:123
Their messengers said to them, “We are ˹indeed˺ only humans like you, but Allah favours whoever He chooses of His servants. It is not for us to bring you any proof without Allah’s permission. And in Allah let the believers put their trust. 14:11
Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “I am only a man like you, ˹but˺ it has been revealed to me that your God is only One God. So take the Straight Way towards Him, and seek His forgiveness. And woe to the polytheists. (Al-Quran 41:6)
Say [O Muhammad], “I do not know if what you are promised is near or my Lord has set a distant time for it. He [Allah] is the˺ Knower of the unseen, disclosing none of it to anyone except messengers of His choice. Then He appoints angel-guards before and behind them to ensure that the messengers fully deliver the messages of their Lord – though He ˹already˺ knows all about them, and keeps account of everything. Al-Quran 72:25-28
Say [O Muhammad], ‘I am not the first of God’s messengers, and I do not know what will be done with me or with you: I do not follow anything but what is revealed to me, and I am merely a plain warner.’ Al-Quran 46:9
We did not send ˹messengers˺ before you ˹O Prophet˺ except mere men inspired by Us. If you ˹polytheists˺ do not know ˹this already˺, then ask those who have knowledge ˹of the Scriptures˺. Holy Quran 21:7
We did not give those messengers ˹supernatural˺ bodies that did not need food, nor were they immortal. Then We fulfilled Our promise to them, saving them along with whoever We willed and destroying the transgressors. Holy Quran 21:8-9
He is the One Who raised for the illiterate ˹people˺ a messenger from amongthemselves—reciting to them His revelations, purifying them, and teaching them the Book and wisdom, for indeed they had previously been clearly astray. (Holy Quran 62:2)
This is the favour of Allah. He grants it to whoever He wills. And Allah is the Lord of infinite bounty. (Holy Quran 62:4)
Narrated `Umar: I heard the Prophet saying, “Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a Slave. So, call me the Slave of Allah and His Apostle.” Sahih al-Bukhari 3445
Narrated Abu Huraira, Two persons, a Muslim and a Jew, quarreled. The Muslim said, “By Him Who gave Muhammad superiority over all the people! The Jew said, “By Him Who gave Moses superiority over all the people!” At that, the Muslim raised his hand and slapped the Jew on the face. The Jew went to the Prophet and informed him of what had happened between him and the Muslim. The Prophet sent for the Muslim and asked him about it. The Muslim informed him of the event. The Prophet said, “Do not give me superiority over Moses, for on the Day of Resurrection all the people will fall unconscious and I will be one of them, but I will. be the first to gain consciousness, and will see Moses standing and holding the side of the Throne (of Allah). I will not know whether (Moses) has also fallen unconscious and got up before me, or Allah has exempted him from that stroke.” Sahih al-Bukhari Volume 3 Book 41 Number 594
Ar-Rubai bint Muawwidh said: “The morning after the consummation of my marriage, the Prophet came and sat on my bed as far from me as you are sitting now, and our little girls started beating the Duff and reciting verses mourning my father who had been killed in the battle of Badr. One of them said: ‘Among us is a Prophet who knows what will happen tomorrow.’ On that, the Prophet said: ‘Stop saying this, and keep on saying what you were saying before.’” Jami` at-Tirmidhi 1090
It was narrated that ‘Ali said: “The Unlettered Prophet informed me (saying) that none but a believer would love me and none but a hypocrite would hate me.” Sunan Ibn Majah Book 1, Hadith 114
Ibn ‘Umar (may Allah be pleased with both of them) reported Allah’s Apostle as saying: We are an unlettered people who can neither write nor count. The month is thus, and thus folding his thumb when he said it the third time. Sahih Muslim 1080n
Sahih Muslim 2600a A’isha reported that two persons visited Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) and both of them talked about a thing, of which I am not aware, but that annoyed him and he invoked curse upon both of them and hurled malediction, and when they went out I said: Allah’s Messenger, the good would reach everyone but it would not reach these two. He said: Why so? I said: Because you have invoked curse and hurled malediction upon both of them. He said: Don’t you know that I have made condition with my Lord saying thus: O Allah, I am a human being and that for a Muslim upon whom I invoke curse or hurl malediction make it a source of purity and reward.
Sahih Muslim 2601b Abu Huraira reported Allah’s Apostle (ﷺ) as saying: O Allah, I make a covenant with Thee against which Thou wouldst never go. I am a human being and thus for a Muslim whom I give any harm or whom I scold or upon whom I invoke curse or whom I beat, make this a source of blessing, purification, and nearness to Thee on the Day of Resurrection.
Sahih Muslim 2601e Salim, the freed slave of Nasriyyin, said: I heard Abu Huraira as saying that he heard Allah’s Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: O Allah, Muhammad is a human being. I lose my temper just as human beings lose temper, and I have held a covenant with Thee which Thou wouldst not break: For a believer whom I give any trouble or invoke curse or beat, make that an expiation (of his sins and a source of) his nearness to Thee on the Day of Resurrection.
