In the intricate tapestry of Indian history, the evolution of societal identities has been a captivating narrative. Among the many threads woven into this rich fabric are the accounts of the Mlechchhas and the emergence of the Rajputs.
These narratives, often found intertwined within Brahmanical texts, offer insights into the complex processes of identity formation and cultural assimilation that characterized ancient and medieval India.
Who is Mlechchha?
The term “Mlechchha” in Brahmanical texts carries various connotations, but primarily refers to those outside the Vedic fold, often depicted as barbarians or foreigners. It has clearly a deeply problematic and racist undertone.
Their portrayal is ambivalent, sometimes depicted as enemies or adversaries, while at other times, they are subjects of fascination or even admiration.
These texts frequently depict encounters between the Vedic Aryans and the Mlechchhas, showcasing conflicts, interactions, and exchanges that shaped the socio-political landscape of ancient India.
The Rigveda, one of the oldest Vedic texts, contains references to encounters with non-Aryan tribes, including the Dasyus and Panis, who are sometimes labeled as Mlechchhas.
These references often depict the Mlechchhas as adversaries to be conquered or subjugated. However, they also hint at cultural exchanges, with the Aryans borrowing linguistic and cultural elements from the Mlechchhas.
As Indian society evolved, so did the dynamics between the Aryans and the Mlechchhas. The post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the epics like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, continue to depict interactions between these groups.
The Puranas, in particular, elaborate on the genealogies of various clans and dynasties, often intertwining Aryan and non-Aryan lineages, blurring the lines between them.
How Huns and Sakas became Rajputs?
The emergence of the Rajputs as a prominent martial class in medieval India is a fascinating chapter in Indian history. The Rajputs claimed descent from various lineages, including those of ancient Kshatriya clans and foreign invaders like the Huns and the Sakas.
The process through which these foreign invaders integrated into the Indian social fabric and attained the status of Rajputs is a subject of scholarly debate.
According to Satish Chandra, “There is a good deal of controversy among scholars about the origin of the Rajputs. Some of them consider them to be of mixed origin, some being descendents of foreigners, such as Shakas, Hunas, etc., and indigenous tribes, and even Brahmans.”
The Huns, a nomadic Central Asian tribe, swept into the Indian subcontinent in the 5th century CE, disrupting existing power structures and establishing their rule in parts of North India.
Initially viewed as barbaric invaders, the Huns gradually assimilated into Indian society through matrimonial alliances, adoption of local customs, and conversion to Hindu-Brahmanism.
Over time, they integrated into the regional power structures and established themselves as ruling elites, eventually being acknowledged as Rajput clans in later texts.
According to RS Sharma, “a large number of foreigners had been assimilated into Indian society, and each group of foreigners was considered a kind of caste. As the foreigners largely came as conquerors they were given the status of kshatriya in society. The Hunas, who came to India towards the close of the fifth century, eventually came to be recognized as one of the thirty-six clans of the Rajputs. Even now some Rajputs bear the title Hun.”
The other reason for the increase in the number of castes was the absorption of many tribal people into brahmanical society through the process of land grants.
The tribal chiefs were assigned a respectable origin, but most of their ordinary kinsmen were assigned a low origin, and every tribe became a kind of caste in its new incarnation. This process continued in some ways up to the present.
Similarly, the Sakas, another Central Asian tribe, arrived in the Indian subcontinent around the same period. Like the Huns, they too assimilated into Indian society, adopting local customs, languages, and religions.
They established their kingdoms in various parts of India, particularly in western regions like Gujarat and Rajasthan. Through alliances with local rulers and integration into the social fabric, the Sakas rose to prominence as Rajput clans in subsequent centuries.
The transformation of the Huns and the Sakas from foreign invaders to esteemed Rajput clans underscores the fluidity of identity in ancient and medieval India.
Rajputization Process: Different Shades
According to Satish Chandra, “many of the Rajputs clans, traditionally numbering thirty-six, trace their geneology to the solar and lunar families of the Rshatriyas which are mentioned in the Mahabharata.
Modern scholarship lays emphasis on the process by which people belonging to different social groups tried to legitimize their newly acquired power and position by being accorded the status of Kshatriyas.
Sometimes a mixed Brahman- Kshatriya status was sought by claiming descent through a Brahman mother. Scholars consider this to be a part of a complex process of social growth.
Thus, in some areas of Rajasthan, tribal lands were colonized, and Brahmans, traders and warriors settled on the land. In many areas, this was accompanied by introducing a superior type of economy based on irrigation through wells, bunds, etc. and bringing in superior crops. In the process, some of the cultivators became Rajputs, while some remained Shudras.
What is called ‘Rajputization’ is accompanied by the growth of the agranian economy, and also of acquisition of political power by some sections. The Brahmans played an important role in this process.
Thus, there was the agnikula legend, traced to the eleventh century, whereby the sage, Vashishtha, produced four Rajput clans— the Pratiharas, Solanki or Chalukyas, Parmar or Pawar, and Chahamans or Chauhan out of the sacrifical fire. During the period, Brahmans wrote many geneologies of ruling families, linking them to ancient kshatriya families.
Thus, the Gurjar- Pratiharas, who are reputed to originate from the Gurjar stock, were linked to Lakshman who had acted as the door-keeper (pratihar) of Rama.
This Brahman-Rajput alliance had many political and cultural consequences. The Rajputs, acting as champions of the newly expansionist Hinduism, symbolized their power by building grand temples, and endowed them and the Brahman priests with large grants of lands, gifts, endowments, etc.”
Case of Gautamiputra Satakarni
The Shakas, who came from Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas.
However, one of the earliest inscriptions in Sanskrit describes how Rudradaman, the best-known Shaka ruler (c. second century CE), rebuilt the Sudarshana lake. This suggests that the powerful mlechchhas were familiar with the Sanskritic traditions.
It is also interesting that the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotamiputra Satakarni, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana (Eka Bamhana) and a destroyer of the pride of the Kshatriyas.
He also claimed to have ensured that there was no inter-marriage amongst the members of the four Varnas. At the same time, he entered into a marriage alliance with the kin of Rudradaman, a Saka who were regarded as Mlechchhas under Brahmanical system.
Also Read| Satavahana Dynasty Society and Culture
Identity in pre-modern societies was often fluid and multifaceted, shaped by factors such as lineage, conquest, cultural assimilation, and political alliances.
The evolution of the Rajputs exemplifies how foreign elements could become integral parts of Indian society through a process of acculturation and integration.
Rajputization in Medieval in India
Rashtrakutas: Rebirth as Kshatriya
Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, were initially subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranyagarbha (literally, the golden womb). When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
In other cases, men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions and took to arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan respectively.
Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims, they often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
Gonds: Aman Das to Sangram Shah
Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They belonged to different lineages, such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas and others. Some of these, too, had been tribes earlier.
Many of these clans came to be regarded as Rajputs. They gradually replaced the older rulers, especially in agricultural areas. Here a developed society was emerging, and rulers used their wealth to create powerful states.
The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal people to follow. Gradually, with the support of the Brahmanas, many tribes became a part of the caste system. But only the leading tribal families could join the ruling class. A large majority joined the lower jatis of caste society.
On the other hand, many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind and the North-West Frontier had adopted Islam quite early. They continued to reject the caste system. The unequal social order, prescribed by orthodox Hinduism, was not widely accepted in these areas.
The emergence of states is closely related to social change amongst tribal people. Two examples of this important part of our history are described below.
The Gonds lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”. They practised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribe was further divided into many smaller clans. Each clan had its own raja or rai.
About the time that the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gond kingdoms were beginning to dominate the smaller Gond chiefs. The Akbar Nama, a history of Akbar’s reign, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 villages.
The administrative system of these kingdoms was becoming centralised. The kingdom was divided into garhs. Each garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan. This was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi. The chaurasi was subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each.
The emergence of large states changed the nature of Gond society. Their basically equal society gradually got divided into unequal social classes. Brahmanas received land grants from the Gond rajas and became more influential. The Gond chiefs now wished to be recognised as Rajputs. So, Aman Das, the Gond raja of Garha Katanga, assumed the title of Sangram Shah. His son, Dalpat, married princess Durgawati, the daughter of Salbahan, the Chandel Rajput raja of Mahoba.
Dalpat, however, died early. Rani Durgawati was very capable, and started ruling on behalf of her five-year-old son, Bir Narain. Under her, the kingdom became even more extensive.
In 1565, the Mughal forces under Asaf Khan attacked Garha Katanga. A strong resistance was put up by Rani Durgawati. She was defeated and preferred to die rather than surrender. Her son, too, died fighting soon after.
How Puranas provided Mythological narratives & Genealogies
Brahmanical texts played a crucial role in shaping and legitimizing the identities of various social groups, including the Rajputs.
The Puranas, in particular, provided genealogies and mythological narratives that linked the Rajputs to ancient Kshatriya lineages and divine origins, enhancing their status and prestige.
These texts often depicted the Rajputs as noble warriors, upholders of dharma, and defenders of the Hindu faith, thereby cementing their place within the Hindu social order.
The Rajputs themselves actively participated in the construction of their identity, employing genealogies, myths, and symbols to assert their legitimacy and status.
They patronized Brahmanical institutions, commissioned elaborate genealogies, and constructed grand temples and monuments, all of which served to reinforce their social position and prestige.
The emergence of the Rajputs as a dominant martial class had far-reaching implications for Indian history.
They played a pivotal role in resisting foreign invasions, defending territorial boundaries, and shaping political developments in medieval India. Their valor in battle, chivalric code of conduct, and patronage of art and culture left an indelible mark on Indian society.
Rajputs & Rise of Feudalism: Depiction in Dharmashastras & Folklore
According to Satish Chandra, “All the literary works of the period tell us that the ministers, officials and feudal chiefs lived in great ostentation and splendour. They aped the ways of the king in having fine houses which sometimes were three to five storeys high.
“They used costly foreign apparel such as imported woollen clothes, Chinese silk, and costly jewels and ornaments made of gold and silver to adorn their bodies. They maintained a large number of women in their households and had a train of domestic servants to look after them. Whenever they moved out, a large number of attendants accompanied them.”
“They assumed high-sounding titles, such as mahasamantadhipati, and had their own distinctive symbols, such as banners, decorated umbrellas and the yak-tail to whisk away flies.
“Big merchants also aped the ways of the king, and sometimes their living was quite royal. Of a millionare (kotisvara) in the Chalukyan empire, we are told that huge banners with ringing-bells were hoisted over his house, and that he owned a large number of horses and elephants.”
“The main building was approached by a staircase of crystal, and had a temple of crystal floor and walls which were adorned by religious paintings containing an image in crystal.”
“Vastupala and Tejahpala who were ministers in Gujarat are reputed to have been the richest merchants of their times. We cannot, however, assume from the above that there was prosperity all round.”
“While food stuffs were cheap, there were many poor people in the cities who could not get enough to eat.”
“The author of the Rajatarangini (written in Kashmir in the twelfth century) has them in mind when he says that whereas the courtiers ate fried meat and drank cooled wine perfumed with flowers, the ordinary people had to be content with rice and utpala-saka (a wild vegetable of bitter taste).”
“There are many stories of the hard lot of poor men and women, some of whom took to a life of robbery and plunder. As for the villages where the large bulk of the population lived, we have to get information about the life of the peasants from literary works, grants of land, inscriptions, etc.”
“The commentators on Dharmashastras tell us that the rate of the revenue demand from the peasant was one-sixth of the produce as before. However, from some of the grants we learn of a large number of additional cesses, such as grazing tax, tax on ponds, etc. The peasants had to pay these taxes over and above the land-revenue.”
“In addition, some of the grants gave the grantees the right to levy fixed or unfixed, proper or improper taxes on the peasants.”
“The peasants also had to render forced labour (vishti). In some cases, as in central India and Orissa, we find some villages being given to the Brahmans, and other donees along with artisans, herdsmen and cultivators who were tied to the soil like serfs in medieval Europe.”
“In literary works we hear of chiefs realising money on every opportunity that offered itself. We are told of a Rajput chief that he made money even from sparrows, dead birds, pig dung and the shrouds of dead bodies. Another writer tells us of a village which was depopulated due to the actions of a chief (samanta).”
“To this may be added the frequent recurrence of famines and wars. In the wars, destruction of water reservoirs, burning of villages, seizure by force of all the cattle or the grains stored in granaries and destruction of cities were normal features, so much so that they are considered legitimate by the writers of the period. Thus, the growth of a society which may be called feudal increased the burdens on the common man.”
How Brahmins created new Castes? Uyyakondan Udaiyar Inscription
As the economy and the needs of society grew, people with new skills were required. Smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varnas. For example, new castes appeared amongst the Brahmanas.
On the other hand, many tribes and social groups were taken into caste-based society and given the status of jatis. Specialised artisans – smiths, carpenters and masons – were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas. Jatis, rather than varna, became the basis for organising society.
A twelfth-century inscription from Uyyakondan Udaiyar, in Tiruchirapalli taluka (in present-day Tamil Nadu), describes the deliberations in a sabha (Chapter 2) of Brahmanas.
They deliberated on the status of a group known as rathakaras (literally, chariot makers). They laid down their occupations, which were to include architecture, building coaches and chariots, erecting gateways for temples with images in them, preparing wooden equipment used to perform sacrifices, building mandapas, making jewels for the king.
Rajputization v Islamization: The Difference
As we discussed previously, the rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal people to follow. Gradually, with the support of the Brahmanas, many tribes became a part of the caste system. But only the leading tribal families could join the ruling class. A large majority joined the lower jatis of caste society.
On the other hand, many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind and the North-West Frontier had adopted Islam quite early. They continued to reject the caste system. The unequal social order, prescribed by orthodox Hinduism, was not widely accepted in these areas.
In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, was made a noble (mansabdar) by Emperor Akbar.
In Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated extensive regions before they were subdued by the Mughals. The Balochis were another large and powerful tribe in the north-west. They were divided into many smaller clans under different chiefs. In the western Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis. A large number of them accepted Islam.
Islamic Perspective on changing one’s Father
The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said: “Whoever calls himself by other than his fathers name (or attributes himself to someone other than his father), will be cursed by Allah, the angels and all the people.” (Reported by Ibn Maajah, 2599; see also Saheeh al-Jaami, 6104).
Let your adopted children keep their family names. That is more just in the sight of Allah. But if you do not know their fathers, then they are ˹simply˺ your fellow believers and close associates. There is no blame on you for what you do by mistake, but ˹only˺ for what you do intentionally. And Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful. Holy Quran 33:5 (Hindi Translation: Mooh bole beton(adopted sons) ko unke baapon (fathers) ki nisbat se pukaro, yeh Allah ke nazdeek zyada munsifana (equitable) baat hai. Aur agar tumhein maloom na ho ke unke baap kaun hain to woh tumhare deeni bhai aur rafeeq hain. Na danishta jo baat tum kaho iske liye tumpar koi giraft(pakad) nahin hai, lekin us baat par zaroor giraft hai jiska tum dil se irada karo. Allah darguzar karne wala aur raheem hai)
O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things) Holy Quran 49:13
Sahih at-Tirmidhi, Ahmad (22978) narrated from Abu Nadrah- Someone who heard the sermon of the Messenger of Allah on the second of the days of at-Tashreeq told me that he said: “O people, verily your Lord is One and your father is one. Verily, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over black nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety and good action.” They said: The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) has conveyed the message.
Mishkat-ul Masabeeh 5178- It has been narrated by Ibn Masood (r) that Prophet (s) said- “Don’t indulge in feudal practices on earth and if you do so, you shall be engrossed in this world only.”
Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol 8, Book 73, No. 224: Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah’s Apostle said, “The most awful name in Allah’s sight on the Day of Resurrection, will be (that of) a man calling himself Malik-al-Amlak (Shahanshah or the king of kings).”
Conclusion
In conclusion, the narratives of the Mlechchhas in Brahmanical texts and the transformation of the Huns and the Sakas into Rajputs offer profound insights into the complex processes of identity formation in ancient and medieval India.
These narratives remind us of the fluidity and dynamism of social identities, shaped by interactions, migrations, and cultural exchanges.
The story of the Rajputs, in particular, serves as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of Indian society in incorporating diverse elements into its cultural fabric.
Sources-
- NCERT Textbooks
- RS Sharma: India’s Ancient Past
- Satish Chandra: Medieval India
